What is a "Lingua Franca"? (Quick Video)

Biography of HEIDI E. HAMILTON

Brief Bio

 Heidi E. Hamilton is Professor in the Department of Linguistics, Georgetown University where she teaches courses in discourse analysis and applications of interactional sociolinguistics. Her research interests focus on issues of discourse and Alzheimer's disease, language and aging, and health discourse.
 Her books include Conversations with an Alzheimer's Patient,Language and Communication in Old Age: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, Glimmers: A Journey into Alzheimer's Disease,Handbook of Discourse Analysis (with Tannen and Schiffrin),Linguistics, Language, and the Professions (with Alatis and Tan), Doing Foreign Language (with Crane and Bartoshesky), and Handbook of Language and Health Communication (with Chou).   Her current book project is titled Language, Dementia, and Meaning Making: Navigating Everyday Challenges of Epistemic Understanding and Face.  She has given plenary lectures at a range of linguistics, health, and aging conferences and workshops around the world, including in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Japan, Norway, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 
Major awards include the Fulbright Distinguished Chair in Linguistics in Innsbruck, Austria and DAAD Gastdozentin in Berlin, Germany. For the past forty-plus summers, she has taught German and carried out research as Village Mentor at the K-12 language and cultural immersion programs of Concordia Language Villages in northern Minnesota  http://www.concordialanguagevillages.org/. 
          Heidi lives in Rockville, Maryland with her husband, Dan, Professor at the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies.  Their son, Sean, studies at Lawrence University in Wisconsin.  Their daughter, Siri, lives in Massachusetts with her husband, Shawn, and teaches third grade in Boston.

              Academic and Professional History

Ø  Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

2007- present Professor, Department of Linguistics Chair, Department of Linguistics, 2009-2015

          The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) Visiting Professorship Award (Gastdozentin) John-F-Kennedy-Institut für Nordamerikastudien, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, Spring 2008

1997-2007 Associate Professor, Department of Linguistics Fulbright Distinguished Chair in Linguistics, University of Innsbruck, Austria, Spring 2003

1992-1997 Assistant Professor on the tenure track Department of Linguistics

1990-1992 Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Linguistics

Ø  Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin), Germany

1985-1989: Lecturer (Lehrbeauftragte), Department of Linguistics John F. Kennedy Institute of North American Studies

Ø    Concordia Language Villages, Concordia College, Minnesota

2015-present: Village Mentor

2005-2015: Senior Researcher

1992-2005: Research Coordinator (summers only)

1973-1992: variety of positions including Assistant Dean and Program Director

            Educational Background

Ph.D. in Linguistics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1989. With distinction.

M.S. in Linguistics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1983.

B.A. St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota, 1977. Summa cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa. 

 Teaching and Mentoring

·      Teaching at Freie Universität Berlin and Universität Innsbruck Courses taught at Freie Universität Berlin (1985-1989 and 2008 as DAAD Gastdozentin)  ·                     Introduction to Linguistics  ·                     Introduction to Sociolinguistics  ·                     Discourse Analysis: Conversation  ·                     Language and Political Power in the United States Courses taught at Universität Innsbruck (as Fulbright Distinguished Chair in Linguistics 2003)  ·                     Discourse Analysis: Conversation  ·                     Discourse Analysis: Narrative  ·                     Doctor-Patient Communication Contact Information E-Mail: hamilthe@georgetown.edu or heidi.e.hamilton@gmail.com Homepage: https://sites.google.com/a/georgetown.edu/hamilthe/ Address:  Department of Linguistics Georgetown University Washington, D.C. 20057-1051

Review (Children First Language Acquisition At Age 1-3 Years Old In Balata)

 Children First Language Acquisition At Age 1-3 Years Old In Balata

Bertaria Sohnata Hutauruk

I. Introduction
            Language acquisition is the process whereby children achieve a fluent control of their native language (Varshney, 2003:307). Language acquisition is the process of language acquisition done by children naturally when children learn their first language or mother tongue. The process of the child begin to recognize verbal communication with its surroundings. While the first language is the language that was first obtained by the child since birth.
Child generally acquire their first language component of the sitter and usually from mother called mother tongue. Therefore, the first language commonly called the mother tongue. First child acquire the language between infancy approximately one year, stems from hearing people talking to the baby then pay attention to the person's face and the baby responds according to his ability.
            The objective of the research is to find the problems and approaches in acquiring first language acquisition at age 1-3 years old. The scope of the research is focused on a child named Mikhaya Estela who lived in ressort Balata.

II. Review Of Literature
Language Acquisition
            Language Acquisition is meant process whereby children achieve a fluent control of their native language (Varshney, 2003:307). The ability to get and understand the language is inherited genetically but the particular language that children speak is culturally and environmentally transmitted to them. Children all over the world acquire their first language without tutoring.
Language acquisition is a process that takes place in the brain of a child when she gained her first language or mother tongue. Language acquisition usually distinguished by language learning. Learning the language associated with the processes that occur when a child learning a second language after she gained her first language. Thus, language acquisition with respect to the first language, while learning a second language with respect to language (Chaer, 2003: 167).
            Language acquisition at age 1-3 years old occurs naturally. It is meant that a child is insensibly acquiring the language but the fact he/she can produce the language for communication. The process of acquiring the language at the age before 5 years old is called as Golden age. This period show the progress of language development from one stage to another.

Nature versus Nurture
            The controversial between nature and nurture is explored by the ancient theories of language acquisition, that is, whether language is innate and God-given or learned by environment. Language acquisition is nurture and nature together to support each other. Acquisition by nature is necessary because without the provision of natural beings may not be the child can speak and nurture language acquisition are needed because without input from the surrounding environment of the natural provisions will not come (Dardjowidjojo, 2003)

Stages in First Language Acquisition

When human are born, he does not have suddenly the grammatical of his first language in his brain and completely with its rules. The native language is acquired through some stages, and every stage is passed near to adult’s language. There are six stages in children’s first language acquisition, namely:

·         Pre-talking stage / Cooing (0-6 months)

·          Babbling stage (6-8 months)

·         Holophrastic stage (9-18 months)

·         The two-word stage (18-24 months)

·         Telegraphic stage (24-30 months) 

·         Later multiword stage (30+months)

According to Aitchison in Harras and Andika (2009: 50-56), stage of child language skills consist of the following things.

Language acquisition phase	Age
Cry	Born
snore	6 weeks
Babble	6 months
intonation patterns	8 months
Utterances of the word	1 year
Two-word utterances	18 months
inflection word	2 years
Interrogative sentence and disbelieve	2 ¼ years
Construction rare and complex	5 years
Mature speech	10 years

            Moreover, in every stage of a child's first language acquisition have in common, namely the process of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, also known as the process of language development of children.

III. Methodology Of The Research

            The methodology of this research is descriptive qualitative approach. It is descriptive because it attempts to find out the children problems in first language acquisition by Mikhaya Estela at age 1-3 years old. This research uses cross-sectional studies because it has a group of children at the age of less than 5 years old. The subject of this research is the children at the age 1-3 years old named Mikhaya Estela who lived in Balata. For this research, the writer uses the video recorder to record the conversation of child and parents. In this research, to collect the data the writer applies observation method and video recording of conversation between child and parent. In analyzing the data, the writer conducts some procedures. The data are collected from video recording of the conversation between child and parent. The writer transcribes the recording data and  analyzes it based on semantic, syntax and pragmatic acquisition.

IV. Conclusion
            Language acquisition can be obtained from the hearing listening and imitating. Each child is different in processing the same words although both aged 2 years or 4 years but not necessarily the child can pronounce the name of the same object.
Language acquisition is divided into two (2) include:
a. First language acquisition, or commonly called mother tongue. because the mother tongue is the first language in the master of man since the beginning of his life through interaction among community members
b. Acquisition of a second language is a process when a person obtains another language as their mother tongue.
            Obtaining phonology or sounds of language begins with the acquisition of basic sounds. Acquiring semantic carried a child by observing and collecting as much information in their environment. What was observed by all five senses into their world knowledge. Based on the knowledge of the world is a child acquire language semantics her world by attaching "meaning" to keep the sound sequence specific language. Obtaining syntax is a child's ability to reveal something in the form of construction or sentence structure. Construction was started on a series of two words.  And in developing children’s language there are six stages as the approaches of first language acquisition, they are cooing, babbling, holophrastic stage, the two-word stage, telegraphic stage and later multiword stage.

Pemerolehan Bahasa Pertama dan Bahasa Kedua pada Anak Usia Dini

A.       Pemerolehan Bahasa Pertama

1.    Pengertian

     Pemerolehan bahasa berasal dari istilah Inggris aquisition yaitu proses penguasaan bahasa yang dilakukan oleh anak secara natural ketika anak belajar bahasa pertamanya atau bahasa ibunya. Proses anak mulai mengenal kominukasi dengan lingkungannya secara verbal.

      Menurut Kiparsky (Tarigan,1986:243) pemerolehan bahasa merupakan proses yang dipergunakan oleh anak – anak untuk menyesuaikan serangkaian hipotesis yang makin bertambah rumit, ataupun teori – teori yang masih terpendam atau tersembunyi yang mungkin sekali terjadi dengan ucapan – ucapan orang tuanya sampai dia memilih berdasarkan suatu ukuran atau dari bahasa tersebut.

       Sedangkan bahasa pertama adalah bahasa yang pertama kali diperoleh oleh anak sejak kelahirannya. Anak pada umumnya memperoleh komponen bahasa mereka yang pertama dari pengasuh dan biasanya dari ibunya yang disebut bahasa ibu. Oleh karena itu, bahasa pertama biasa disebut dengan bahasa ibu atau mother tongue. Anak pertama kali memperoleh bahasa tersebut antara masa bayi kurang lebih satu tahun, bermula dari mendengar orang yang mengajak bicara kemudian bayi memperhatikan wajah orang tersebut lalu bayi merespon sesuai dengan kemampuannya.

2.        Tahap – Tahap Pemerolehan Bahasa Pertama

        Seorang anak tidak dengan tiba – tiba memiliki tata bahasa dalam otaknya dan lengkap dengan semua kaidahnya. Bahasa pertama diperolehnya dalam beberapa tahap dan setiap tahap berikutnya lebih mendekati tata bahasa dari bahasa orang dewasa. Adapun tahap – tahap pemerolehan bahasa pertama adalah sebagai berikut :

a.         Tahap Pralinguistik I (Meraban)

Tahap ini berlangsung ketika anak berusia 0 – 6 bulan. Bayi mulai mengeluarkan bunyi – bunyi dalam bentuk teriakan, rengekan. Bunyi yang dikeluarkan mirip dengan bunyi vokal atau konsonan. Kecenderungan bunyi yang dikeluarkan bersifat universal yaitu bunyi yang dikeluarkan bayi sama diseluruh dunia.

b.         Tahap Pralinguistik II

Pada tahap ini usia sekitar 6 – 12 bulan bunyi yang dihasilkan sama tapi kita sudah bisa membedakan maksud anak. Anak sudah menghasilkan konsonan dan vokal.

c.         Tahap Satu Kata

Tahap ini berlangsung ketika anak berusia antara 12 dan 18 bulan. Ujaran – ujaran mengandung kata – kata tunggal yang diucapkan anak mengacu pada benda – benda yang dijumpai sehari – hari. Pada tahap ini anak mulai mengerti bahwa bunyi ujar berkaitan dengan makna dan mulai mengucapkan kata – kata pertama. Kecenderungan anak hanya menguasai satu kata dan umumnya anak mudah mengucapkan vokal.

d.         Tahap Dua Kata

Tahap ini berlangsung ketika anak berusia 18 – 20 bulan. Ujaran – ujaran yang terdiri atas dua kata muncul seperti mama mam dan num susu. Anak mampu mengucapkan kata dengan baik dan tersusun rapi.

e.         Tahap Pengembangan Gramatikal

Pada tahap ini anak mulai menghasilkan ujaran kata ganda. Anak mulai mampu berbicara panjang. Anak juga mulai mampu berbicara terhadap banyak objek. Kosakata anak berkembang dengan pesat mencapai ratusan kata dan cara pengucapan kata – kata semakin mirip dengan orang dewasa. Biasanya anak cenderung banyak bertanya, banyak yang ingin diketahuinya.

3.        Peran Bahasa Pertama

Bahasa pertama mempunyai peranan penting dalam pengembangan bahasa selanjutnya. Hasil penelitian Dulay, Burt, dan Krashen (1982) mengatakan bahwa bahasa pertama merupakan faktor utama dalam proses pemerolehan bahasa kedua. Menurut teori Behavioristik Watson dan Skinner, kebiasaan lama masuk dalam cara belajar kebiasaan baru yang berarti bahasa pertama mempengaruhi bahasa kedua.

B.        Pemerolehan Bahasa Kedua

1.        Pengertian

          Bahasa kedua adalah bahasa yang digunakan anak setelah ia menguasai bahasa pertamanya. Pemerolehan bahasa kedua merupakan proses pemerolehan bahasa yang kompleks dan bertahap, baik yang dialami oleh anak maupun dewasa, baik bahasa lisan maupun tulisan. Elis (1989) menyatakan bahwa pemerolehan bahasa kedua merupakan proses yang kompleks dan mencakup banyak faktor yang saling berhubungan.

2.        Faktor – Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Pemerolehan Bahasa Kedua

a.         Faktor Lingkungan Bahasa

Lingkungan bahasa adalah segala sesuatu yang didengar dan dilihat anak dalam belajar bahasa kedua yaitu bahasa yang digunakan dalam berkomunikasi sehari – hari oleh masyarakat disekitar anak.

b.         Faktor Internal

Faktor internal adalah faktor seseorang yang dapat mempengaruhi anak dalam berbahasa. Faktor tersebut adalah : (1) kepribadian, (2) umur, (3) motivasi.

3.        Peranan Bahasa Kedua

      Peranan bahasa kedua lebih difokuskan pada penguasaan bahasa anak usia dini dalam rangka pengembangan keterampilan berbahasa. Oleh karena itu, masalah pemerolehan bahasa kedua penting untuk diketahui oleh pendidik anak usia dini sehingga bahasa kedua bisa diperoleh dengan baik oleh anak usia dini.

C.        Teori – Teori Tentang Pemerolehan Bahasa Pertama

1.    Teori Behaviorisme

Teori behaviorisme menyoroti aspek perilaku kebahasaan yang dapat diamati langsung dan antara hubungan antara rangsangan (stimulus) dan reaksi (respone).  Perilaku bahasa yang efektif adalah memuat reaksi yang tepat terhadap rangsangan. Reaksi ini akan menjadi suatu kebiasaan jika reaksi itu dibenarkan. Dengan demikian, anak belajar bahasa pertamanya.

Menurut Skinner, tokoh aliran behaviorisme, perilaku kebahasaan sama dengan perilaku yang lain dikontrol oleh konsekuensinya. Menurut pandangan kaum behavioristik anak yang baru lahir ke dunia ini dianggap kosong dari bahasa atau kosong dari struktur linguistik yang dibawanya. Anak tersebut ibarat tabularasa atau kertas putih yang belum ditulisi, lingkungannyalah yang akan memberi corak dan warna pada kertas itu. Namun pemerolehan seperti ini memerlukan penguatan (reinfocment)

2.    Teori Nativisme

Menurut teori nativisme, bahasa hanya dapat dikuasai oleh manusia, binatang tidak mungkin menguasai bahasa manusia. Menurut Chomsky, hal ini didasarkan pada beberapa asumsi. Pertama, perilaku berbahasa adalah sesuatu yang diturunkan (genetik), setiap bahasa memiliki perkembangan yang sama (merupakan sesuatu yang universal) lingkungan memiliki peran kecil didalam proses pematangan bahasa. Kedua, bahasa dapat dikuasai dalam waktu yang relatif singkat. Ketiga, lingkungan bahasa anak tidak dapat menyediakan data yang cukup bagi penguasaan tata bahasa yang rumit dari orang dewasa. Menurut aliran ini, bahasa adalah sesuatu yang kompleks dan rumit sehingga mustahil dapat dikuasai dalam waktu singkat melalui ‘peniruan’. Nativisme juga percaya bahwa setiap manusia yang lahir sudah dibekali dengan suatu alat untuk memperoleh bahasa (Language Acquisition Device, disingkat LAD).

3.    Teori Kognitivisme

Menurut teori ini, bahasa bukanlah suatu ciri alamiah yang terpisah melainkan salah satu diantara beberapa kemampuan yang berasal dari kematangan kognitif. Bahasa distrukturi oleh nalar. Perkembangan bahasa harus berlandaskan pada perubahan yg lebih mendasar dan lebih umum didalam kognisi. Menurut teori kognitivisme, yang paling utama harus dicapai adalah perkembangan kognitif, barulah pengetahuan dapat keluar dalam bentuk keterampilan berbahasa. Pendekatan kognitivistik yang dipelopori oleh Louis Bloom memandang bahwa pemerolehan bahasa anak-anak harusb dilihat dari fungsi bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi.

4.    Teori Interaksionisme

Teori interaksionisme beranggapan bahwa pemerolehan bahasa merupakan hasil interaksi antara kemampuan mental pembelajaran dan lingkungan bahasa. Pemerolehan bahasa itu berhubungan dengan adanya interaksi antara masukan ‘input’ dan kemampuan internal pembelajar. Setiap anak sudah memiliki LAD sejak lahir, namun tanpa adanya masukan yang sesuai tidak mungkin anak dapat menguasai bahasa tertentu secara otomatis

Article Review about "Discourse and Aging"

Discourse and Aging

 HEIDI E. HAMILTON

0     Introduction

            Some scholars describe the language and/or communicative abilities that accompany aging, looking both at healthy individuals and at those dealing with health problems that directly affect language use, such as Alzheimer’s disease and aphasia. Others assume that people’s language choices help to construct their social identities (including an elderly identity or patient identity) and relate these choices to issues of mental and physical health. Still others recognize the critical importance of communicative relationships across the life span and investigate talk among friends and family members, both at home and within health-care facilities.

This article describes:

1    Who Is Old? Conceptualizations of Old Age

            Researchers who work with elderly individuals come to the nearly immediate realization that age is much more complex than a simple biological category. Chronological age tells only a small part of anyone’s story and in fact, can be quite misleading.
People often feel older or younger than their chronological age (Boden and Bielby 1986; cf. discussion of “disjunctive aging” in Coupland et al. 1989).
            Each person will experience aging, but aging in each individual will vary depending on hereditary factors, environmental stressors, and a large number of other factors. Although there is no single theory can explain the events of the physical, psychological, and social events complex that occur from time to time, an understanding of the research and theories generated is very important for nurses to help the elderly maintain physical health and psychological perfect.

Theories that explain how and why aging occurs typically classified into two major groups, namely the theory of Biological and Psikososialogis

2     Embracing Multiple Disciplinary Perspectives

            Following Chafe and Moerman, then, I argue that, not only should no single disciplinary approach be understood as the dominant paradigm in issues of discourse and aging, but excluding any disciplinary approach a priori will almost certainly result in a less-than-complete understanding of such issues. The field is far too complex to be understood by looking through one set of filters.

            Aging (getting old) is a process of gradual disappearance of the network's ability to self-repair / replace and maintain normal function that can’t survive the infection and repair the damage suffered. (Constantindes, 1994)

The process of aging is not a disease, but rather a period or stage of human life, namely: infancy, childhood, adulthood, old age, and the elderly. People died not because of advanced age, but because of a disease, or also a handicap. However, the aging process can cause a reduction in body resistance in the face of stimuli from inside and outside the body. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that there is a wide range of diseases that often plague the elderly.

The aging process is already under way since the person reaches adulthood. For example, with the loss of tissue in the muscles, nervous system and other tissues so that the body die little by little. Actually there is no clear boundary, at what age a person's appearance began to decline. In each person, the physiological function of the tool body is very different, both in terms of achieving the peak and decline.

3     Modes of Inquiry

3.1    Different starting points

Possibly the most obvious paradigmatic difference relates to the choice of a theory-driven (top-down) or data-driven (bottom-up) approach to questions of discourse and aging. Researchers who align themselves with the natural sciences tend to take a theory-driven approach; they start with a question and motivation that derive from a theory which they deem important and relevant. Once the motivated question has been posed, they determine which and how many subjects are necessary to carry out the study as well as the context(s) of the subjects’ language use. In this approach, the analytical tools necessary to the examination of language use are usually determined ahead of the actual data collection.

3.2    Contexts of talk

Discourse and aging studies typically examine language used within one or more of the following contexts:

ü Standardized test situation

ü Interview with the researcher

ü Conversations with the researcher

ü Real-life situations “listened in on” by the researcher

4    Areas of Inquiry

In this section  identify three areas of inquiry that have served to center clusters of research in the area of discourse and aging and that  predict will continue to be important magnets for research in the future:

(1) language and communicative abilities in old age

(2) identity in old age

(3) social norms, values, and practices in old age.

Decisions regarding where to place individual studies in this review were based on  understanding of each author’s primary focus and goals.

1)      Language and communicative abilities in old age

The majority of these scholars work in the disciplines of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and speech and language pathology; their findings are typically based on the discourse produced and comprehended within standardized test batteries by large numbers of strategically selected elderly subjects. Some of these researchers look specifically at subgroups of the overall elderly population who are known to have difficulties with communication, such as individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, different types of aphasia, and hearing loss. Others attempt to characterize the decline, maintenance, or improvement of such abilities within the healthy elderly population

Language is a symbol system sounds arbitrary, conventional and influenced by people as a means of communication. Language is seen as a language which has its own characteristics and unique. This can be assessed through the disciplines of psycholinguistics.

while Communicative means able to convey the message properly. That is, the message received by the receiver together with the intent of the message delivered by the sender of the message. The meaning of the message here is not only information, but also includes thoughts, desires and feelings.

2)      Identity in old age

         Other scholars working in the area of discourse and aging are drawn to issues of identity. These researchers tend to be trained in the fields of social psychology, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and anthropology. Generally, they are not primarily interested in characterizing language abilities and disabilities of elderly individuals. Instead these scholars attempt to identify patterns and strategies in discourse by and with (usually healthy) elderly interlocutors and relate these to the ongoing construction of a range of identities for the speakers as the discourse emerges.

3)      Social norms, values, and practices in old age

            Another group of scholars interested in the relationship between aging and discourse focuses primarily on characterizing discourse practices by elderly individuals that display or reflect the speakers’ social norms and values.

Cattell (1999: 312) argues that researchers should not dismiss such complaints as “just what all old people do,” but should recognize the strategic use of this practice through which the complainers “assure their physical security and reassure themselves as persons in settings of rapid social and cultural change.”

Comparing the past to the present. Disclosing painful information. Complaining. These discursive practices can be seen as reasonable responses to change, but ones that may be subject to misinterpretation when (over)heard by those who do not share the same experiences of changing physical environments, changing bodies, and chang-ing relationships.

5 Conclusions

            The goal of understanding how discourse and aging are related to each other challenges us to understand how language is used by large numbers of elderly indi-viduals in many and varied contexts, both experimental and natural.

             The aging process is normal, this continues over time naturally. Started since human beings are born even earlier and generally common to all living beings. Aging is a process of structural body function decline followed by a decrease in endurance. Each person will experience old age, but aging on each person varies depending on various factors that influence it. These factors may include hereditary factors, nutrition, stress, health status and other. In essence, being old is a natural process that means someone has gone through three stages of life, namely childhood, adulthood and old age (Nugroho, 1992). These three different stages, both biologically and psychologically. Enter old age is to experience physical and psychological setback. Physical setbacks marked by the loosened skin, gray hair, decreased hearing, deteriorating eyesight, slow movements, abnormalities of the various functions of vital organs, increased emotional sensitivity and lack of passion.

            Biological theories attempting to explain the physical process of aging, including changes in the function and structure, development, longevity and mortality. The changes in the body including molecular and cellular changes in major organs and systems of the body's ability to function adequately and fight disease.
            Psikososialogis theory focused on changing attitudes and behaviors that accompany increasing age, as opposed to the biological implications of anatomical damage. For the purposes of this discussion, sociological changes or nonphysical combined with psychological changes.